Open source intelligence and privacy - criminology Essay

Open source intelligence and privacy - criminology - Essay Example There is also the hope of stopping the incidence of crime, through addressing the causes of crime at the individual level, which can result in social reforms. The pressure to study crimes and criminal behaviour is also fuelled by the wish to comprehend and give an explanation about the incidences of crime and the reactions of society towards it. Again, some scholar, especially philosophers and sociologists, will study crime, so as to know more about it, and also to find out what it tells the people about the society and its problems. In defining crime, the simple definition developed about the area is this: criminology as the collection of knowledge related to the issue of crime, as a social phenomenon. The field of criminology covers – under it – the law making process, the breaking of laws, and the responses offered to the community members that break the law. The objective of the field of criminology is that of developing a body of general and evidence-based knowledge, among other sets of knowledge, about the processes of law, crime and the treatment offered to the breakers of law. On the other hand, computer science is the practical, specific approach to the field of computation and its applications. It is the methodical exploration of the structure, feasibility, expression and the mechanization of algorithms (methodical processes) behind the process of obtaining, illustrating, processing, storing, transmitting and accessing information, whether it is programmed as bits inside a computer memory bank or transcribed inside the protein structures or the genes of human cells. A computer scientist is a specialist in the field of computing and the designing of computational systems. This report will identify the key concepts of computer science from a criminologist’s point of view. The report will also explore the meaning of the concept, the difficulty of putting the field into operation and the relevance of the field

Alcohol Composition Analysis

Alcohol Composition Analysis ALCOHOL Chemical Composition (ingredients) of 4 types of alcoholic beverages: The ingredients differ according to each beverage but there are a couple that are available in all of them, these are water and ethanol. These two ingredients are essential in every alcoholic beverage. Champagne can only be made from white Chardonnay grapes and red Pinot Noir and Pinot Meunier grapes. It’s usually a blend of two or three of the grapes, but is sometimes just made from one (though rarely is Champagne made from just Pinot Meunier). Champagne made entirely from Chardonnay is called â€Å"blanc de blancs† (meaning white wine from white grapes), and Champagne made entirely from Pinot Noir is called â€Å"blanc de noirs† (meaning white wine from black grapes). Even though black grapes are used, the wine itself is never red. The skins (where the pigment resides) are removed immediately after the grapes are pressed, which keeps the juice clear. The only exception is with rosà © Champagne. Rosà © can be produced by leaving the skins in the juice just long enough to tint it, or by producers adding red Pinot Noir wine directly to the blend. This second method allows them to create the same color each year. Carbon dioxide is added in the process which cre ates the fizzy bubbles. Vodka is usually made from rye or potatoes if it is from Eastern Europe and molasses from other parts of the world. It contains flavors derived from wheat, grain or starch. Apart from the main raw material, the other major constituent of your bottle of Vodka is water. Over 60% of your bottle is composed of water, so its purity is of utmost importance to the taste of your vodka. Quite an elaborate purification process is undertaken. Tequila is made with the fermented sap of the blue agave plant; tequila is produced in and around the town of Tequila in Mexico’s Jalisco province. Many superior brands of tequila are made entirely from Blue Agave, and will say so on the label. Tequila can also be made with a mixture of agave and other ingredients, like sugarcane—these products are called mixto tequilas. Malt whisky must contain no grain other than malted barley and is traditionally distilled in pot stills. Grain whisky may contain unmalted barley or other malted or unmalted grains such as wheat and maize (corn) and is typically distilled in a continuous column still. Color and flavoring chemicals are added to create that unique color and taste Methods and Procedures used in the production of alcoholic beverages: If the sparkling wine is produced outside of Champagne, France, but is made by the French Method, it is usually labeled Mà ©thode Champenoise. This is true of most American sparkling wines. Mà ©thode Champenoise, which is the method used in Champagne, involves several distinct steps. The key reaction of winemaking is alcoholic fermentation, the conversion of sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide by yeast. The maximum amount of alcohol attained through alcoholic fermentation is about 15% because the yeast cells are killed by high alcohol concentration. The maximum alcohol content can be determined by multiplying 0.55 times the percent sugar initially present in the grape juice before fermentation. For example, if 24% sugar is initially present, about 13% (0.55 x 24) alcohol will be realized. Most still wines (i.e., table wines) contain 12 to 14% alcohol. The key process in producing Champagne is a SECOND fermentation that occurs in a sealed bottle. Theoretically, vodka can be made from almost any fermentable organic material from whey to molasses. Absolut Vodka, however, is made solely from grain, which more than 400 years of tradition has proven to produce the best and purest vodka possible. Absolut Vodka uses a special method of distillation that retains a smooth grain character and is extremely low in unwanted by-products. A few thousand years ago, someone made the bright discovery that when deprived of oxygen, the yeast cell turns sugar into carbon dioxide and ethanol. Fermented beverages are born. These beverages were eventually distilled, giving us dozens of different spirits, one of which is vodka. Fermentation is an extremely delicate and complicated process where the yeast cell converts the sugar in the mash to ethanol. The result is a mixture with an 8% alcohol content and a hundred or so by-products, some unpleasant tasting, some harmful. A concern for quality from the very beginning of the production process minimizes these impurities using only high quality grain, preparing the grain, safeguarding against bacteria and carefully controlling the fermentation process. Virtually all remaining impurities are removed in the distillation and rectification. Turning the fermented grain mash to vodka takes distillation. The principle has remained unchanged ever since it was discovered over a thousand years ago. There are two kinds of distillation: batch distillation and continuous distillation. Batch distillation is an age-old method used for many types of spirits. Refined to a high degree of sophistication, this method is still used in areas like Cognac and the Scottish highlands to make cognac and whisky. Absolut Vodka, however, is distilled using the second method, continuous distillation. This type of distillation builds on the same laws of physics as batch distillation. The essential difference is that the spirit is cycled back and forth producing a very pure final product. Continuous distillation turns the 8% fermented mash into crude spirit with an alcohol concentration by volume of 85-90% (170-180 proof). The last step is rectification, a method of removing unwanted by-products introduced over a century ago by the man on the bottles medallion Lars Olsson Smith. The crude spirit passes through a number of columns, each designed to remove a different set of impurities. One column extracts unpleasant tasting solvent compounds; another removes fusel oil; a third methanol; a fourth concentrates the spirit 96% pure alcohol by volume and extremely low in impurities. It is here we are faced with the dilemma of vodka production distillation and rectificati on technology have advanced so far towards producing absolutely pure vodka that it has also succeeded in removing trace elements that give vodka the character of the raw material from which it is made. Absolut Vodka has solved this dilemma by, parallel to the main distillation, producing a spirit where the goal is to retain the fine character of the grain. The final composite spirit, produced at or above 95% alcohol by volume (190 proof), has that unique smooth and fine character. Exactly how this is done is a well-kept secret. The process of making tequila begins with the jima, the harvest, and the jimadores, those responsible for growing and eventually harvesting the agave plant. The plant will be weighed, cut up in halves or quarters, and cooked. The modern method involves using steel pressure cookers called autoclaves. The latter approach cooks the plant faster. Fortunately, flavor doesnt vary with either process. Agave is cooked to transform starches into sugars, which will then become transformed into alcohol. To extract the agua miel, or honey water, the cooked fruit passes through grinding blades. Fibers are sprayed with water, ensuring all sugars are released. Leftover fibers, known as bagazo, are generally used as fertilizer for agave fields. The juices are now ready to be fermented. This is each tequila starts to acquire its unique taste and classification. If the producer wants 100% agave tequila, then the juice passes straight to fermentation vessels. However, if he wants mixto tequila (not 100 % agave tequila), then the agua miel (honey water) must be placed in formulation tanks. Sugarcane or molasses sugar are then added to the juice. Only then can the mixto be placed in fermentation vessels. Now’s the time alcohol begins to appear. Producers will introduce yeasts. These can either be chemical catalysts or natural ingredients. The tanks are lightly heated and carbon dioxide is released, giving the agave juice 5% alcohol content per volume. The mosto, or fermented agave juice, is finally ready for distillation. The juice will be heated to alcohol’s vaporization point and then cooled and condensed to create ordinario (ordinary in English). Tequila is distilled to increase its alcohol content. Becomes tequila blanco. You could try to drink this ordinario, but chances are you’d be blinded and intoxicated afterwards! That is why Mexican law requires all tequila to be distilled twice. The mosto can be distilled three or even four times for top-shelf tequil a. The first distillation will remove all â€Å"heads† and â€Å"tails†, the first and last portions of the distilled product. These contain bad alcohols and other impurities, which is why they must be discarded in favor of a quality (and safe) drink. A second distillation determines the percent of alcohol the tequila will have. Premium tequila will aim for 40% alcohol per volume. A bulk, mixto, or lower quality spirit instead aims for 55% alcohol per volume, which will be later diluted with purified water. Tequila then will be aged depending of the final product that is wanted. There are five stages in the production of whiskey, malting, mashing, fermentation, distillation and maturation. Barley contains starch and it is this starch which needs to be converted into soluble sugars to make alcohol. For this to occur, the barley must undergo germination and this first part of the process is called malting. Each distiller needs a type that produces high yields of soluble sugar. The barley is soaked for 2-3 days in warm water and then spread on the floor of a building called a malting house. When the barley has started to shoot, the germination has to be stopped by drying it. The barley is now called malt and this is ground down in a mill, with any husks and other debris being removed. Now we begin the â€Å"mashing† step. The ground down malt, grist, is now added to warm water to begin the extraction of the sugars. The liquid combination of malt and water is called the mash. It is put into a large vessel called a mash turn and stirred for several hours. The liquid that comes out of that is called wort. This process is normally carried out three times with the water temperature being increased each time to extract the maximum amount of sugar. Only wort from the first two times is used. The third lot is put back into the next batch of new grist. Any residue, such as husks, is called draff. This is collected and used in the production of farm feed. â€Å"Fermentation† begins when the wort is cooled and passed into large tanks called washbacks. These are traditionally made of wood, but now a number of distilleries use stainless steel. Here the yeast is added and the fermentation begins. The yeast turns the sugars that are present into alcohol. As with the barley and water, the distiller will carefully select the strain of yeast that they use and it can also have a small effect on the final flavor of the spirit. The fermentation normally takes around 48 hours to run its natural course, although some distilleries will let it go fo r longer so as to create further characteristics that they require. The liquid at this stage is called wash and is low in alcohol strength (between 5-10% ABV), like beer or ale. Alcohols from the beginning of the distillation (called foreshots) are very high in alcohol level and very pungent. Alcohols from the end (called feints) are weak but also pungent. It is only the alcohol from the middle or heart of the distillation that is used and this is skillfully removed by a stillman and collected through the spirit safe. The foreshots and feints are then mixed with the next batch of low wines and re-distilled. The heart is the spirit that is then taken to be matured and that will become whisky. This heart has an alcoholic strength of 65-70% ABV. The final step is â€Å"maturation†. The spirit is put into oak casks and stored. The most common types of oak casks are those that have previously been used in the American bourbon and Spanish sherry industries. The spirit must mature i n casks for a minimum of three years before it is legally allowed to be called whisky in Scotland. During maturation, the flavors of the spirit combine with natural compounds in the wood cask and this gives the whisky its own characteristic flavor and aroma. Why do people drink? People resort to alcohol for many reasons. Some people drink it because they like the taste and feeling that alcohol gives them

The Life of Black Maids in The 1960s Essays -- African American Women,

Harsh, cruel, and stressful are three words to describe the life of African American women domestic workers during the Civil Rights Movement. During the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s, there were many contributions other than just the typical marches, speeches, and violence that everybody hears about. One of the many topics that have not been heard about frequently is the life of the colored maids during this time period. What were black domestic workers? These women worked for many white families usually in the south for practically their whole lives taking care of their employer’s children and working their houses cleaning and doing many other tasks. The life of a black maid had many responsibilities and difficulties that challenged these women on a daily basis. When discussing the background of the many women who became maids, it is often questioned where they came from and when they started working. In almost every black town there were many ladies all over who were maids. As early as 10 years old, these ladies had worked for many white families all over southern states. They started off by just doing simple tasks such as answering doorbells and sweeping the yard. When they start to become older, they learn to become cooks and then eventually are suited to be a maid to white families in the south (History Matters). Firstly, an African American maid raised white children and had many chores while doing so. An experienced black maid quoted on â€Å"History Matters† refers to the amount of work she had to do by saying, â€Å"It’s â€Å"Mammy, do this, â€Å"or â€Å"Mammy, do that,† or â€Å"Mammy do the other,† from my mistress, all the time.† The maids were required to wash, dress, and feed the children more than three times a day. Somet... ...were that they had. Even though they were dealt with many issues, they learned to stick up for themselves knowing the consequences that they would get. Not only did they have many responsibilities, but they had several hardships to deal with. Even later on in the years there was still problems between domestic workers and white employers during the Civil Rights movement and even after it. Even today, discrimination are still going on between different races, genders, etc. To this day, people all over are still willing to fight for their rights. Works Cited History Matters. n.d. 21 April 2014 . Kilen, Mike. The Desmoines Register. 8 October 2012. 25 April 2014 . Sharpless, Vanessa May and Rebecca. UNC Press Blog. n.d. 21 April 2014 . Stockett, Kathrynn. The Help. New York: Penguin Group, 2009.

Islamic Womens’ Rights Essay

Islam since its inception has maintained the claim of universality – a message and a way of life applicable and appropriate to all peoples in all places and times. Now more clearly than at any other point in the history of the Islamic tradition, this claim seems to be manifested through the presence of Muslim communities literally across the world. The Muslim population is estimated in the range of one billion, approximately half of whom are women representing a great range of cultures, racial-ethnic identifications, interests, attitudes, and aspirations. While it may be rather daunting to attempt to generalize about Muslim women, it is nonetheless true that certain themes emerge with some regularity when one looks across the Islamic world. Muslims struggle with and attempt to reconcile the affirmation of their heritage with the challenges of the modern world and the ongoing legacy of Western imperialism. Muslim women in all societies are key to these discussions, both subjects and objects in a very important and continuing debate about what it means to be a Islamic woman. Women’s rights (both Islamic and constitutional) are under constant debate, as are matters of seclusion and segregation, the relationship of women’s circumstances to fundamentalist religious pressures, and the role of women in political struggles for independence and economic advancement. Some countries such as Egypt have stressed the importance of women’s education for the better part of the century. Others like Saudi Arabia have only recently begun to work toward this goal. It is clear that overall there is increased attention to the importance of education for Muslim females both as a right and a value in and of itself, and as an essential ingredient in the advancement of nations. As in many areas, it is also clear that enormous differences exist educationally for women in urban and in rural areas, a dichotomy that at least in the short run probably will become even more pronounced (Carroll 85). There is also the major concern of women’s employment in Muslim countries and the debate over which occupations are considered proper for women to pursue. In many countries shortages in the labor force are making it imperative for women to work, but the tide of traditionalism tends to mitigate strongly in limiting those opportunities. In many countries increasing numbers of women are engaged as wage earners, but they are limited primarily to such occupations as teaching and medicine (Hussein and Radwan 12). The oil wealth of the Gulf states had led both to better education and to more work opportunities, although the conservative Islamic ethos has severely complicated the situation. Kuwait offers the greatest opportunities for women’s employment, and Bahrain with its economic diversification is opening new doors for female employment (Hussein and Radwan 12). Whether because of or despite Islam or government policies, women across the Islamic world are becoming more economically active. This does not necessarily mean, of course, that they are pressing for increased work opportunities. Many women would prefer not to work, doing so only because of economic necessities and happy that the extra money earned means a more comfortable life for their families. Enhanced professional opportunity for women is not without its down side. Women in a number of cultures have come to realize that along with the societal and familial strains that occur when women work outside the home (including perceptions that men cannot support their families) is the reality of women taking on added responsibilities without the expectation that they will be able to do less in other areas of their lives. And the relationship of economically and politically active women to the advancement of the state adds further strains for many women (Mintjes 17). In Iraq, for example, women’s liberation and full integration into society is a part of the Ba’th party platform. But reforms in personal status laws lag behind the political rhetoric, adding to the burdens of women (Sanasarian 124-125). This is generally true across the Islamic world, and it means that these burdens will continue as long as there is no real resolve in the tension between needing women for national development and not being able to accord them full status in society because of socio-religious restrictions (Rassam 99). The other issue is, undoubtedly, the question of women’s dress which is one of the most pressing concerns of Islamic societies today. Sometimes the government in allegiance with the religious establishment and seeking its support insists on women wearing â€Å"appropriate† covering. In other instances governments are making every attempt to discourage the wearing of Islamic dress precisely because they fear the rising power of extremist fundamentalism (Yeganeh 26-27). Today controversy over the government’s ban on students wearing Islamic dress at the universities has become a major ideological and political issue. Islamic conservatives say that the Quran dictates the wearing of the turban, preferably with a kind of long loose overcoat covering the body to the feet. The government’s supreme educational council has recommended disciplinary action for any female students appearing in such dress. The debate has become a major one in the struggle between secularist ideology and Islamic revivalism in that country (Bahry 502). Besides, the question of birth control is a matter of major concern to many Muslim families. While a few of the ulama, if supported by state efforts, are saying that there is Islamic sanction for some preventive measures, the majority oppose any such control as un-Islamic. When young Iraqi men and boys were being killed in the war with Iran, the government waged a campaign stressing the role of women as mothers. Contraceptives were no longer allowed at the same time that men were encouraged to take second wives for the purpose of having more children. Clearly there are differences in men’s and women’s attitudes on the issue of birth control. In Tunisia, for example, where legislation concerning women is generally seen to be more progressive than in many other countries, a survey showed that far more women than men favored the use of contraceptives. Where official policy does not support the possibility of contraception more subtle measures are sometimes used. In Bahrain housing projects limit the number of bedrooms so that they are available only to families with two children (Bahry 509- 511). Finally, a word needs to be said about Muslim women and the rise of feminism. It cannot perhaps be emphasized too strongly that whatever stand Islamic women may take on issues of education, employment, and equal opportunities in society, they have serious reservations about what they understand to be feminism in the Western context. For the most part they find it too individualistic, too removed from genuine cooperation between males and females, and too much tied to forms of Western colonialism and imperialism. â€Å"Sexual behavior that may strike an American feminist as liberated,† said one young Tunisian woman, â€Å"may strike me as just another form of slavery, and a rather neurotic form at that† (Megademeni 10). Muslim women and men together are still very much in the process of working out ways in which to affirm their Islamic identity as members of societies and nations moving into a new century. The issues they face will not be quickly or easily resolved. Women are not only faced by a number of conflicting pressures and claims on their allegiance, but find themselves speaking to a number of different audiences – their husbands and families, their Islamic sisters, their Western critics, the clerics or government agencies responsible for determining many of the circumstances of their lives, themselves. There is little question that many women across the Islamic world are becoming increasingly aware of the rights that belong to them within the Islamic system, as well as of themselves as key players in the movements that will continue to redefine the Islamic way of life. The responses they give to their own changing circumstances may vary with the different situations to which they are called to respond, and they may change fairly dramatically in the next few years. But it is clear that whatever solutions are found to the issues that they face, for most women they will be discovered in conversation with other females as well as males in the Muslim community, and they will be – in one form or another – Islamic solutions. Works Cited Bahry, Louay. â€Å"The New Saudi Woman: Modernizing in an Islamic Framework.† Middle East Journal. Vol. 34: 4, 2002. Carroll, Lucy. â€Å"Nizan-I-Islam: Processes an Conflicts in Pakistan’s Programme of Islamisation, with Special Reference to the Position of Women. † In Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics. Vol. 20: 1992. Hussein, Freda and Radwan, Kamelia. â€Å"The Islamic Revolution and Women: Quest for the Quranic Model. † Freda Hussein, ed. , Muslim Women. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994. Megademeni, Negiba. â€Å"Muslim Women Developing a Theory of Islamic Feminism. † Unitarian Universalist World. Vol.16: 8, August 15, 1995. Mintjes, H. â€Å"The Doctor and the Ladies: A New Debate on ‘Women and Islam’ in Pakistan. † al-Mushir. Vol. 25: 1993. Rassam, Amal. â€Å"Revolution Within the Revolution? Women and the State in Iraq. † Iraq: The Contemporary State. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2002. Sanasarian, Eliz. The Women’s Rights Movement in Iran. New York: Praeger, 2001. Yeganeh, Nahid. â€Å"Women’s Struggles in the Islamic Republic of Iran. † Azar Tabari and Nahid Yeganeh, eds. , In the Shadow of Islam: The Women’s Movement in Iran. London: Zed Press, 1982.

American Immigrants and Literacy Essay

Language is very important in the society because it enables people to communicate with each other and for them to participate meaningfully in the affairs of the society. For first generation immigrants to the United States, however, the problem of literacy and language becomes more pronounced. These people migrate to the United States for a variety of reasons. It could be because of economic need. Or it may be because the country they came from is in political trouble and there are outright hostilities and war. In this regard, the education needs of these immigrants may not be congruent with what is in the United States. Since these immigrants entered the US as adults, the challenge to become literate and become expert in the English language is greater than for children. What usually happens is that the parents work incessantly to provide for the family while the children go to school and literate and adjusted to the culture of the US. For adults, however, this is a challenge. This issue could be addressed using a two-step strategy. The first would be the establishment of non-formal English as second language classes that are based in the communities and would be facilitated by the literate members of the society. This way, there would be greater acceptance and they would be more receptive to a member of their community . Alongside the non-formal teaching of English as second-language, there should be a functional literacy program. These adult immigrants would be taught specific matters and subjects that they need for their daily lives. They might not need to study calculus and advance literature, but what they need is a working knowledge of the society they are in and how they can make their lives more meaningful in this society.

Hatshepsut and Thutmose III essays

Hatshepsut and Thutmose III essays 5. Assess the relationship between Hatshepsut and Thutmose III. There have been many theories regarding the relationship between Hatshepsut and Thutmose III, yet none have evidence strong enough to support the idea that there was any conflict between the two. Although she officially ruled jointly with Thutmose III, there is no doubt that Hatshepsut was the dominant partner. Most co-regencies last for little longer than a few years of the younger partners reign, but Hatshepsut and Thutmose IIIs lasted for thirteen years. Hatshepsut was thirty-seven when Thutmose came to the throne. She was his tutor, aunt and step-mother and was arranging for her daughter, Neferure, to marry Thutmose III, Thutmose IIs son to Isis. It wasnt until about two to seven years into Thutmose IIIs reign that Hatshepsut proclaimed herself as pharaoh. There was no doubt that by the twentieth year of their reign, Hatshepsut was the senior pharaoh. On the stela of Nakht from Sinai, dated year twenty, both Hatshepsut and Thutmose III are represented as on equal footings offering gifts to the gods. Surviving inscriptions indicate that she accorded Thutmose III with the respect to which he as entitled, although throughout most of her reign, her image and name were always in front of his. Thutmose appears in the Punt reliefs on the walls of Hatshepsuts temple at Deir el Bahari. He is shown standing behind the queen dedicating the best off fresh myrrh before the sacred barque of Amun. (Breasted, Ancient Egypt Records.) Later in Hatshepsuts reign, Thutmose appears to have taken a more prominent role in the relationship. The evidence is quite clear about Thutmoses leadership of the army and his campaigns into Nubia, and possibly even Gaza, before Hatshepsuts death. Had Thutmose posed a serious threat to Hatshepsuts position, it is unlikely he would have been given leadership of ...

American Me essays

American Me essays American Me is a movie, made in 1992, directed by and starring Edward James Olmos. This movie based on a true story, about a Mexican-American male spinning over half his life in prison. He grew up in the street of East Los Angeles, were he joined the local neighborhood gang. He and his friends got sent to prison at the age of sixteen for breaking and entering. In prison he did what it took to survive, which got him more years in jail. He started the biggest click in prison, Mexican Mafia, which gave him and all Latinos, away to survive the prison life. Santana is the name of the person the movie revolves around. His parents were Zoot Suitors in their day and not like by society. Sailors, during the Zoot Suit Riots raped Santanas mother and beat up his father. Santana grew up with his father resenting him, because he was not his real son. But Santana did not find this out until much later in his life. Santana stay in the street, during his childhood to get away from his father. Santana killed his first person at the age of sixteen, which gave him respect and power. Santana love his newly find power. From his power and respect, he started the Mexican Mafia, which later expanded in and out of prison. They used the Mexican Mafia the keep Latinos united and to stop people, who were stronger, from taking anything away from his people. Santana used he power to grantee Latino peoples safety by making them pay rent. Santana and his counter parts, JD and Mundo, ran everything in Folsom State Prison. They had control of gambling, drugs, and prostitution. In prison the Mexican Mafia was up against the Black Gorilla Family (BGF) and the Arien Brotherhood. They did deal with everyone but it was a constant battle to keep the power and respect. There was nothing the system could do to keep Santana from running things. The warrant put him in solitaire and sent people in his Mafia to different prisons, but all that di...

How to Apply for a US Passport

How to Apply for a US Passport Applying for a US passport can be simple or it can be ​a  crash course in bureaucracy. You want simple. Best advice? Learn the rules, assemble everything you need before you apply for your US passport and apply at least 6 weeks before your trip. US Passport  - Do You Need One? All US citizens traveling anywhere outside the United States will need a passport. All children regardless of age, including newborns and infants, must have their own passport. There are special requirements for all minors ages 16 17. A U.S Passport is not required for direct travel within the 50 States (including Hawaii, Alaska, and District of Columbia) and U.S Territories (Puerto Rico, Guam, U.S Virgin Islands, Northern Mariana Islands, American Samoa, Swains Island). However, if you are traveling to a U.S. State or Territory through another country (for example, traveling through Canada to go to Alaska, or, traveling through Japan to go to Guam), a passport may be required. Also be sure to read the following information on requirements for travel to Mexico, Canada or the Caribbean. Important: Travel to Mexico, Canada or the Caribbean Under the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI) of 2009, most U.S. Citizens returning to the United States from Mexico, Canada or the Caribbean at sea or land ports of entry must have a passport, passport card, Enhanced Driver’s License, Trusted Traveler Program card or other travel document approved by the Department of Homeland Security. It is advised that you refer to the U.S. State Departments Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative information website when planning travel to Mexico, Canada or the Caribbean. US Passport - Applying in Person You must apply for a US passport in person if: You are applying for your first U.S. passport orYou are under age 16 orYour previous U.S. passport was issued when you were under age 16 orYour previous U.S. passport was lost, stolen, or damaged orYour previous U.S. passport was issued more than 15 years ago orYour name has changed since your US passport was issued and you are unable to legally document your name change Also note that there are special rules for all minors under age 16 and all minors age 16 and 17. Proof of US Citizenship Required When applying for a U.S. passport in person, you will need to provide proof of US citizenship. The following documents will be accepted as proof of US citizenship: Previously issued, undamaged US passportCertified birth certificate issued by the city, county or state of birthConsular Report of Birth Abroad or Certification of BirthNaturalization CertificateCertificate of Citizenship If you do not have primary evidence of U.S. citizenship or your birth certificate does not meet the requirements, you can submit an acceptable form of Secondary Evidence of US Citizenship. NOTE: Effective April 1, 2011, the U.S. Department of State began requiring the full names of the applicants parent(s) to be listed on all certified birth certificates to be considered as primary evidence of U.S. citizenship for all passport applicants, regardless of age. Certified birth certificates missing this information are no longer acceptable as evidence of citizenship. This did not affect applications already in-process that had been submitted or accepted before April 1, 2011. See: 22 CFR 51.42(a) US Passport Application Form You will also need to fill out, but not sign, Form DS-11: Application for a U.S. Passport. This form must be signed in the presence of the Passport Agent. The DS-11 form may also be filled out online. US Passport Photographs You will need to provide two (2) identical, passport-quality photographs with you application for a US passport. Your US Passport Photographs Must Be: Identical and in color2 x 2 inches in sizeTaken within the past 6 months, showing current appearanceFull face, front view with a plain white or off-white backgroundBetween 1 inch and 1 3/8 inches from the bottom of the chin to the top of the headTaken in normal street attireUniforms should not be worn in photographs except religious attire that is worn dailyDo not wear a hat or headgear that obscures the hair or hairlineIf you normally wear prescription glasses, a hearing device, wig or similar articles, they should be worn for your pictureDark glasses or nonprescription glasses with tinted lenses are not acceptable unless you need them for medical reasons (a medical certificate may be required)Vending machine photos are not generally acceptable Proof of Identification Required When you apply for a US passport in person, you will need to present at least one acceptable form of identification, including: Previously issued, undamaged US passportValid Drivers LicenseNaturalization CertificateCurrent government ID (city, state or federal)Current Military ID (military and dependents) Where to Apply in Person for a US Passport: You can apply in person for a US passport at any Passport Acceptance Facility (usually a Post Office). Processing Fees for a US Passport When you apply for a US passport, you will need to pay the current US passport processing fee. You can also request expedited US passport processing for an additional $60.00 fee. Need Your US Passport Fast?   If you need expedited processing of your application for a US passport, the State Department strongly suggests you schedule an appointment. How Long Will it Take? Current processing times for US passport applications can be found on the State Departments Applications Processing Times web page. Once you have applied for a US passport, you can check the status of your application online. US Passport - Renew by Mail You can apply to renew your US passport by mail if your current US passport: is undamaged and can be submitted with your applicationWas issued when you were age 16 or olderWas issued within the last 15 yearsWas issued in your current name or you can legally document your name change If all of the above are true, you can renew your US passport by mail. Otherwise, you must apply in person. Requirements for Passport Applicants with Puerto Rican Birth Certificates As of October 30, 2010, the Department of State no longer accepts Puerto Rican birth certificates issued prior to July 1, 2010, as primary proof of U.S. citizenship for a U.S. passport book or passport card. Only Puerto Rican birth certificates issued on or after July 1, 2010, will be accepted as primary evidence of U.S. citizenship. The requirement does not affect Puerto Ricans who already hold a valid U.S. passport. The Government of Puerto Rico recently passed a law invalidating all Puerto Rican birth certificates issued prior to July 1, 2010, and replacing them with enhanced security birth certificates with features to combat passport fraud and identity theft.

Internal Monitoring for a Stronger Police Force Research Paper

Internal Monitoring for a Stronger Police Force - Research Paper Example A metaphor is something that is used to signify an idea through example, and therefore this is an objective example of applying something that may be completely unrelated objectively, but still has meaning as it is seen to relate to a larger concept. In the case of the broken windows theory, this larger concept is the assumption that, basically, one thing leads to another. This is related in some ways to the previous objective portrayal of the domino metaphor, in which it only takes one domino falling to make many other dominos fall. Objectively, in terms of the broken window theory, â€Å"The germ of the idea is simple and compelling. A broken window--or a littered sidewalk, a graffito, or what you like--does no great harm to a neighborhood if promptly addressed. But left untended, it sends a signal: that no one cares about this neighborhood, that it is a safe place to break things, to litter, to vandalize. Those who engage in such behaviors will feel safe here. And once these mino r miscreants have become well established, perhaps it will seem a safe enough neighborhood in which to be openly drunk† (Siegel et al., 2006). The first part of this statement is very objective by nature. Zero tolerance programs are also features of traditional policing. Traditional policing involves theory and other issues. It is also anticipated that results will be mixed in terms of officers’ perceptions of ethics training as an effective option to cut down on misconduct. â€Å"Usually, the content of ethics training consists of adopting one philosophical framework and discussing hypothetical or researched ethical dilemmas within that framework. To be sure, examples of ethical dilemmas for criminal justice students and practitioners can be gathered from newspapers, books, and journal articles.  

Personal bias paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Personal bias paper - Essay Example They also acknowledge that the phenomenon of socio-economic status is real. Apart from these fundamental realizations, the education also focuses on the physical ability of individuals (Prasad 67). The issue of physical ability is fundamental in explaining the divergences between people. Not everyone can have the ability to undertake certain actions. This is attributable to the nature of their physical ability. Family education requires committed educators who must have adequate faith and appropriate styles in their roles as educators. Faith allows educators to believe in the culture and meaning of culture practice. This implies that the educators make their students acknowledge the existence of cultural practices because of the faith that they continue to show. It also makes the family educators develop a consistent style while they deliver fundamental lessons on family life (Prasad 43). It is beneficial for people to undergo both prescribed and informal family education classes. This will improve human relations in families and societies. People will understand why certain occurrences take place and in turn prevent conflicts. Elements of misunderstanding between people from diverse socio-economic status will also be

Discuss Gospel of Mark Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Discuss Gospel of Mark - Assignment Example In Mark 15 v 32 his enemies ironically refer to him as ‘Christ , this king of Israel.’ In 10 v 17 he is described as ‘Good Teacher’ by someone who wants to ask him questions. 2.How does Jesus identify himself? What titles/names does he use in relation to himself? Under questioning from Pilate Jesus answers to the title ‘King of the Jews’ , but Pilate was referring to an earthly kingdom and Christ to a heavenly one. In Mark 10 v 33 he is describing himself when he says ‘The Son of Man’. The phrase come from Enoch 46 where ‘the ancient of days’ is also described as ‘the Son of man’. 3.Write a brief â€Å"character sketch† (word picture) of Jesus as he is presented in the Gospel of Mark. Mark describes Jesus as a man of action anointed by God. ( Mark 1 v 11) Words such he might send them out to preach and to have authority to drive out demons.’ ( Mark 3 v 14, 15.) They are also described as being ordinary, imperfect people -James and John the Sons of Thunder i.e. quick to anger’ and ‘Judas Iscariot , who betrayed him. The gospel, begins with the baptism by John i.e. the time when Jesus was clearly stated to be God’s beloved son who pleased him ( Mark 1 v 11). This is different from the other evangelists. John begins before time ‘In the beginning was the Word.’ Both Matthew and Luke begin with the time of Jesus’s birth or thereabouts. These three writers wanted readers to know who Jesus was. Mark is more concerned with what he did. Mark begins his gospel at the beginning of Jesus’ ministry. He knew God as His Father who loves him and anoints him with the Spirit. - Mark 1v 11. He sees himself as belonging to a family of those who obey the will of God - Mark 3 v 35. In Gethsemane ( Mark 14 v 36 he prays to God as ‘Abba’ i.e. Daddy’, but

Benjamin franklin Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Benjamin franklin - Essay Example The website ushistory.org is published by the Independence Hall Association (IHA) which is a non-profit organization in Philadelphia. All their sites are copyrighted and they give historical details of famous people and facts of history. Through this website they have projected Franklin’s struggles in early life and how he managed to get into the printing business. His endeavor and experiments as a scientist have also been portrayed apart from his interest in politics. He not only served the United States while living there but even for 18 years he lived in England as a colonial representative. This demonstrates his loyalty to his nation. The websites concentrates on the international fame that electricity and lightning brought to Franklin. This is basically a quick biography and the intended audience is high school students or first timers who are not much aware about Franklin. The website gives information that England was far ahead of America during that period although cor ruption in politics and royal circles in England did disturb him. America had strained relations even with France and Franklin was responsible for the Treaty of Paris. The second website has collected details from the Encyclopedia Britannica. This website highlights Franklin as a person, an individual, as a child, his youth, his successes and achievements and his dedication to public service. This site also highlights critics of Franklin, his contemporaries who thought he was a fraud. His early life has been mentioned but no details of his struggles as in the previous website have been given. This website also highlights him as a philanthropist who founded academies and societies for the benefit of the society. He had an early start in politics and this website gives more details of his political involvement in England. The intended audience would be the casual readers or high school children to familiarize themselves with the life and times of Franklin. The purpose of this

Bahrain History 2 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Bahrain History 2 - Assignment Example It only got its independence from Great Britain early in the 1970s. It was only then when the Constitution was formulated along the lines of the needs of the people of the Bahrain and its historical and religious backgrounds. While the country came into being in 1971 (Cavendish, 2006, 37), a fully functional constitution was placed into force in 1973. Under this constitution a unicameral legislature was brought into force. In this constitution there were two categories separately designated for the appointment of the ministers to the cabinet. While one quota was reserved for the ministers to be appointed from the royal family and of the noble class, the other category had the ministers to be appointed through the proper method of election and people’s appointment process. In this cadre the total numbers of ministers appointed were 30 in number. The name of the country was chosen for the Emirate of Bahrain. The constitution of 1973 remained in force for a little time. While initially it was aimed for to be enacted for a longer period, the dream could not come true and due to the disagreements and turbulence in the political scenario, the constitution along with the assembly and the representative members were sent packing in no time. It was in 1975 that the constitution was termed abrogated and the country was being declared to be run in state of emergency (Mangold, 2013, 60). The first few articles were related to the declaration of the power in the country, the other articles were related to the civil society and social welfare and functioning articles and instructions. It consisted of a total of 109 articles which had the segment and space for the domestic affairs, the welfare, the foreign policy, the state affairs and all other basic components that were required for making the constitution a functional one. Under each of the constitution the King is the head of the state, he is supported by the Prince who is from the same family.

IT & Financial Services Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

IT & Financial Services - Essay Example For this, the needs of financial transactions arise on a regular basis. In these days information technology is the biggest invention that contributes to the welfare of humanity. It not only speeds up the mode of everyday life but also makes life easier. â€Å"Time† is the most precious element in today’s life. The value of time is the biggest concern for everyone. Digitalization and introduction of information technology in the field of financial transactions help mankind to a great extent (Mann & Mann, 2011, p.264-320). Initially it needed some specific computer or web based knowledge to pursue such transactions. However, once a person got the access to knowledge of computer and information technology systems, it turned into the most desired mode of transaction. The online banking facility is one such application of information technology which emerged as the best way to transfer money in short time (Stathopoulos, 1995, pp.56-79). People used to save money in banks no t only for getting interest but also for its security. The implementation of information technology in personal financial transactions, however, gave rise to questions on security. The online banking system depends on a username and password to access an account. So it will be very crucial to make all the transactions in a safe and secured way. Different measures are taken to ensure the security of financial transactions. The measures include generation of one-time passwords, alerts for password changes at periodic intervals, provision of net-secure codes in financial transactions (Glaessner et al., 2002, p.145). Financial transaction When a transaction in terms of money is carried out between two people namely the buyer and seller in the market, such transactions are known as financial transaction. As the transaction is done, the financial position of the two parties gets altered. In most of the cases, a financial transaction is done on account of receipt of different items which c an create value in the form of information, goods, and services. In ancient times, there were no concepts of financial transaction. People used barter system in order to exchange goods and services. The traders faced problems in this system as they may not have needed such items or services in a certain swap. Next, valuable metals like gold and silver were introduced to carry out the transactions. With the advent of civilization, the monetary coins and printed flat money were used for the transactions. These are referred as financial transactions. In the 20th century floating currency gradually got replaced by fixed currency. In recent times, the computer networks are used for electronic mode of money transfer which increased the speed of transactions. However, the advanced mode of electronic money transfer has its own complexities as well (Friedland, 2010, p.245). The money which can be exchanged electronically by using computer networks and internet is known as electronic money or e- Money. When the money is transferred from one account to another through computer using the software and applications of information technology, it is referred to as Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT). The other modes of financial transaction include the use of wire transfer, payment card, debit card, direct deposit, online banking electronic benefit transfer, etc. (Friedland, 2002, p.287). Wire transfer- It is also known as credit transfer. Wire transfer involves transfer of money from

Bahrain History 2 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Bahrain History 2 - Assignment Example It only got its independence from Great Britain early in the 1970s. It was only then when the Constitution was formulated along the lines of the needs of the people of the Bahrain and its historical and religious backgrounds. While the country came into being in 1971 (Cavendish, 2006, 37), a fully functional constitution was placed into force in 1973. Under this constitution a unicameral legislature was brought into force. In this constitution there were two categories separately designated for the appointment of the ministers to the cabinet. While one quota was reserved for the ministers to be appointed from the royal family and of the noble class, the other category had the ministers to be appointed through the proper method of election and people’s appointment process. In this cadre the total numbers of ministers appointed were 30 in number. The name of the country was chosen for the Emirate of Bahrain. The constitution of 1973 remained in force for a little time. While initially it was aimed for to be enacted for a longer period, the dream could not come true and due to the disagreements and turbulence in the political scenario, the constitution along with the assembly and the representative members were sent packing in no time. It was in 1975 that the constitution was termed abrogated and the country was being declared to be run in state of emergency (Mangold, 2013, 60). The first few articles were related to the declaration of the power in the country, the other articles were related to the civil society and social welfare and functioning articles and instructions. It consisted of a total of 109 articles which had the segment and space for the domestic affairs, the welfare, the foreign policy, the state affairs and all other basic components that were required for making the constitution a functional one. Under each of the constitution the King is the head of the state, he is supported by the Prince who is from the same family.

Financial accounting Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Financial accounting - Research Paper Example Practice 3-1 Solution: a. The accounts impacted by the transaction are 'Cash' and 'Notes Payable' b. Both 'Cash' and 'Notes Payable' accounts increased. c. 'Cash' and 'Notes Payable' accounts increased by $5,000. d. Total Assets increased by $5,000, Total Liabilities increased by $5000, Total Equity, however remained unchanged. Practice 3-2 Solution: a. The accounts impacted by the transaction are 'Cash' and 'Land' b. 'Cash' account decreased while 'Land' account increased. c. 'Cash' decreased by $45,000. 'Land' increased by $45,000. d. Total Assets, Total Liabilities and Total Equity remained unchanged. Practice 3-11 Solution 20XX May 1 Cash.. . 125,000 Notes Payable.. 125,000 Borrowed from Far West Bank signing a 2-yearnote at 14% Practice 3-12 Solution 20XX May 14 Land.. 45000 Cash.. 45000 Bought land on west side of Hatu Lake Practice 3-16 Solution Refer to Practice 3-11 Notes Payable 20XX 20XX May1 Beg. Bal. 0 May1 Cash 125000 May30 End. Bal. 125000 Cash 20XX 20XX May1 Beg. Bal. 0 May1 Notes Payable 125,000 May30 End. Bal. $125,000 Refer to Practice 3-12 Land 20XX 20XX May1 Beg. Bal. 0 May14 Cash 45000 May30 End. Bal. $45000 Cash 20XX 20XX May1 Beg. Bal. 0 May 14 Land 45000 May30 End. Bal....These are called "generally accepted" because they are widely accepted by business community. Otherwise, these rules will have no application in business. In the USA, Financial Accounting Standard Board (FASB) develops GAAP. It is a private body that sets both broad and specific rules (Wild, 2005). Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) is another government entity that sets reporting requirements for companies that issues stock to general public. In addition to above-mentioned two bodies, there is another board called International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) that establishes International Financial Reporting Standards. This is an attempt to establish a harmonious and consistent system of accounting throughout the globe. However, IASB cannot impose these rules to organizations. The main objective of GAAP is to make financial information "relevant, reliable and comparable" (Wild, 2005). Managers' decisions are highly affected by the relevant financial information. Adherence to GAAP offers reliability to financial information and wins the trust of the user. Good understanding of these principles is necessary especially when you are comparing the performance of two or more companies, especially when the companies belong to different industries or countries. An adjusting entry is necessary to bring assets/ liabilities and revenu

Agriculture co-operative societies

Agriculture co-operative societies Agriculture co-operative societies An agricultural cooperative, also known as a farmers co-op, is a cooperative where farmers pool their resources in certain areas of activity. A broad typology of agricultural cooperatives distinguishes between agricultural service cooperatives, which provide various services to their individually farming members, and agricultural production cooperatives, where production resources (land, machinery) are pooled and members farm jointly. Agricultural production cooperatives are relatively rare in the world, and known examples are limited to collective farms in former socialist countries and the kibbutzim in Israel. Worker cooperatives provide an example of production cooperatives outside agriculture. The default meaning of agricultural cooperative in English is usually an agricultural service cooperative, which is the numerically dominant form in the world. There are two primary types of agricultural service cooperatives, supply cooperative and marketing cooperative. Supply cooperatives supply their members with inputs for agricultural production, including seeds, fertilizers, fuel, and machinery services. Marketing cooperatives are established by farmers to undertake transformation, packaging, distribution, and marketing of farm products (both crop and livestock). Farmers also widely rely on credit cooperatives as a source of financing for both working capital and investments. Why farmers form cooperatives Cooperatives as a form of business organization are distinct from the more common investor-owned firms (IOFs). Both are organized as corporations, but IOFs pursue profit maximization objectives, whereas cooperatives strive to maximize the benefits they generate for their members (which usually involves zero-profit operation). Agricultural cooperatives are therefore created in situations where farmers cannot obtain essential services from IOFs (because the provision of these services is judged to be unprofitable by the IOFs), or when IOFs provide the services at disadvantageous terms to the farmers (i.e., the services are available, but the profit-motivated prices are too high for the farmers). The former situations are characterized in economic theory as market failure or missing services motive. The latter drive the creation of cooperatives as a competitive yardstick or as a means of allowing farmers to build countervailing market power to oppose the IOFs. The concept of competitive yardstick implies that farmers, faced with unsatisfactory performance by IOFs, may form a cooperative firm whose purpose is to force the IOFs, through competition, to improve their service to farmers. A practical motivation for the creation of agricultural cooperatives is sometimes described as overcoming the curse of smallness. A cooperative, being an association of a large number of small farmers, acts as a large business entity in the market, reaping the significant advantages of economies of scale that are not available to its members individually. Three typical examples are a machinery pool, a marketing cooperative, and a credit union. A family farm may be too small to justify the purchase of a tractor or another piece of farm machinery for its own use; a machinery pool is a cooperative that purchases the necessary equipment for the joint use of all its members as needed. A small farm does not always have the means of transportation necessary for delivering its produce to the market, or else the small volume of its production may put it in an unfavorable negotiating position with respect to intermediaries and wholesalers; a cooperative will act as an integrator, collecting t he output of its small members and delivering it in large aggregated quantities downstream through the marketing channels. A small farmer may be charged relatively high interest rates by commercial banks, which are mindful of high transaction costs on small loans, or may be refused credit altogether due to lack of collateral; a farmers credit union will be able to raise loan funds at advantageous rates from commercial banks because of its large associative size and will then distribute loans to its members on the strength of mutual or peer-pressure guarantees for repayment. An Integrated Automation Solution for Primary Agricultural Co-operative Societies (PACS) One of the major concerns in any developing economy is the efficacy of the rural financing systems that advances credit to its large population of rural poor. Such operations are plagued by small size of the loans, inadequate risk profiling of loanee, large volume of transactions, non-standardized operations, and difficulty in monitoring credit disbursal and collection. Nelitos MFin brings the benefit of computerization into the field of micro-finance that helps to achieve the following: Reduction in operational cost Standardization of operation Production of reports for statutory monitoring and transparent operations Reduce the risk of lending Transacting in cash and kind Prudent saving habits Easiness of installation Minimal training Mfin (Micro Finance) launched during 1996 has been accepted as both private and public sector banks are aggressively planning to tap the rural potentiality. Major Functional Modules Savings Bank Current Accounts Cash Credit Accounts Daily Deposit Accounts Term Deposits Recurring Deposits Term Loans Trading Membership Accounting Key features Graphical User Interface Modular Approach Parameterized set up Online Help GL Maintenance Investment Register Gold Loans (Agriculture General) Kisan Credit Card Loans in kinds and Repayment in kinds Loans Against Deposit TL for Agriculture Allied Activity Standing Orders and Lien Noting NPA Marking and Reports Reconciliation Membership Accounting Investment Register Reconciliation Inventory Control Purchase Register Sundry Creditors Dividend Calculation Register Stock Statement Trial Balance Trading Account Trial Balance Profit Loss Accounts General Ledger Balance Sheet Statement of Account Statutory Reporting Agriculture cooperatives Various development activities in agriculture, small industry marketing and processing, distribution and supplies are now carried on through co-operatives. the co-operatives in the State have made an all-round progress and their role in, and contribution to agricultural progress has particularly been significant. The schemes regarding the construction of godowns and the conversion of villages into model villages. The Co-operative Movement was introduced into India by the Government as the only method by which the farmers could overcome their burden of debt and keep them away from the clutches of the money-lenders. The Co-operative Credit Societies Act, 1904 was passed by the Government of India and rural credit societies were formed . Through the appointment of registrars and through vigorous propaganda, the Government attempted to popularize the Movement in the rural areas. Within a short period, the Government realized some of the shortcomings of the 1904 Act and, therefore, passed a more comprehensive Act, known as the Co-operative Societies Act of 1912. The primary agriculture credit societies The agricultural co-operative credit structure in the Punjab State is broadly divided into two sectors, one dealing with the short-terms and medium-terms finance and the other with the long-term credit. In the State, the short-term and medium-term credit structure is based on a three-tier system, i.e., the Apex Co-operative Bank at the State level, the Central Co-Coperative Bank at the district/tehsil level and the Primary Agricultural Credit Societies at the village level. The major objectives of the primary agricultural credit service societies are to supply agricultural credit to meet the requirements of funds for agricultural production, the distribution of essential consumer commodities, the provision of storage and marketing facilities. Owing to an increasing emphasis on the development of land and agriculture, long-term co-operative credit has assumed great importance. There is the Punjab State Land Mortgage Bank at the Apex and the Punjab Mortgage Bank at the district/tehsil level. At the operational level, there exists a primary co-operative to extend credit to the farmer. This unit epitomizes the vitality and service potential of the Co-operative Movement in India. The organization of these societies dates back to 1904, when the first Co-operative Societies Act was passed. These societies were started with the object of providing cheap credit to the agriculturists in order to free them from the clutches of the rapacious money-lenders. the agricultural primary credit society is the foundation-stone on which the whole co-operative edifice is built. The first Agricultural Credit Society in the Firozpur District was registered on 4 October 1911, at the Village of Khalchi Kadim in the Firozpur Tehsil. Originally, the movement was confined to the credit societies only and, thus, credit dominated till the partition (1947). After the partition, the Co-operative Movement began to spread to other field, viz labour, construction and farming. Agriculture non-credit societies While credit is and must remain for some time the chief concern of the Co-operative Movement relatively slow, since 1912, when the non-credit societies were brought officially under the aegis of the Movement. the World War II (1939-45) came as a God send boon with respect to the development of the Co-operative Movement. Prices of agricultural goods began to rise and touched new peaks. The repayment of loans was accelerated and deposits began to pour in. The number of societies also rose. Another interesting development in co-operative during the War wast the extension of the Movement to non-credit activities, viz. Agriculture co-operative marketing societies Marketing has occupied a far smaller place in the co-operative picture in India than in many countries, notably Denmark and the USA, but not other non-credit line of co-operation, with the possible exception of the consolidation of land holdings and joint farming enterprises, seems to hold greater possibilities of help to the agricultural population of India. The development of co-operative marketing in India is closely bound up with the problem of credit-the claims of the money-lenders commonly inhibiting the cultivators freedom of action in disposing of his crop. The full utilization of loans advanced depends upon the arrangements for the marketing of surplus produce. For this purpose, there the Punjab State Marketing Federation at the State Level, wholesale societies at the district level and marketing societies at the market level. These societies also provide other agricultural facilities and make arrangements for the supply of domestic items in the rural areas. At the State level, the Punjab State co-operative Supply and Marketing Federation (MARKFED) is playing an important role in building up an integrated structure for remunerative marketing and storing of agricultural produce. it has played an important role in hastening the Green Revolution in the State by arranging ready supplies of essential farm inputs needed by the cultivators. Co-operative farming societies The Royal Commission on Agriculture in 1928 observed that it co-operation failed, there would fail the hope of the Indian agriculturist. Co-operative farming is a compromise between collective farming and the peasant proprietorship and gives all merits of large-scale farming without abolishing private property. It implies an organization of the farmers on the basis of common efforts for common interests. Under this system, all landowners in a village form a co-operativesociety for tilling the land. The land is pooled, but each farmer retains the right of property. The produce is distributed by each. They are allowed to withdraw fromthe co-operative farm whenever they de3sire. In India, the exceedingly small size of holdings is perhaps the most serious defect in our agriculture. If agriculture has to be improved, the size of the holdings must be enlarged. Type of societies Co-operative Weavers society Co-operative Consumers Societies Co-operative Housing Societies Co-operative Womens Societies Co-operative Milk-Societies Challenges before co-operatives The IndianCo-operative Movement has earned distinction of being the largest in the world.This is true in terms of membership and Co-operative network which spread over almost all the villages in the country and the number of Co-operative Societies. In our country, there are about 5.5 lakhs of cooperative Societies with membership of more than 22crores. It covers a wide range of commercial activities and nearly 50% of them are engaged in agriculture and agriculture related matters. Nearly 70% of the Indian population beingdependant on agriculture, is thus, connected with agricultural Co-operatives. Co-operatives have covered 100% of villages and 67% of rural households. Co-operative sectorcontributes 50% of total agricultural credit and distributes 35% of total fertilizer consumption in the Country. They are procuring 60% of total sugar-cane. They are also playing crucial role in the agro-processing sector i.e. processing of sugar-cane, milk, cotton and oil seeds etc.Dairy Co-operativ es have excelled in their area of operation and have enabled India to attain top position in milk production in the world. Edible oil marketed through Co-operative channel is estimated at 50% and handloom Co-operatives account for 55% of the total out-put. But in spite of being largest movement in the world and strongest link, it faces number of challenges like lack of internal resources and poor mobilization of external resources, inadequate infrastructure, competitive tier structure, apathy of members towards management, lack of accountability increasing sickness, dormancy, low level professionalism, excessive government control, political interference, dominance of vested interest over the management, lack of human resources development, education and training.Despite all challenges, Co-operatives have to be sustainable over a period of time for which professionalism is a must. Co-operatives have been looking for Governmental help. But they have been paying of it like official domination and interference in their day-to-day working etc. Dr. Kuriyan, an eminent co-operator in the country said recently that the Co-operatives have undergone a crisis of identity being neither government nor private. He further said that Co-operatives n eed to be more efficient and competitive, but at the same time they cannot sacrifice the basictenets of co-operation. Inefficient Co-operatives will have to either pull up their socks or down their shutters. Co-operatives have many advantages in tackling problem poverty alleviation, employment generation and food security. They also have the potential to deliver goods and services in areas where both the State and Private sectors have failed. Over the past few years, steps like the enactment of mutually aided Co-operative Societies Act by some States and the Multi-State Co-operative Societies Act have been taken to give the Co-operative sector a boost. But I am aware that the Co-operatives registered under the Mutual Aided Act have certain constraints and deficiencies, which may be Lack of supervision and inspection by Registrar of Co-operative Societies resulting into financial misuse and disproportion institutional development. Government is hesitating to entrust any important government work since it does not have any participation. These Co-operatives are away from the mainstream. The Co-operative Banks and other important institutions are not prepared to admit them as members. NABARD and RBI are not agreeing for conversion of Central and Urban Co-operative Banks. R.B.I. has also objection about the use of word Co-operative since Banking Regulation Act uses the word Co-operative Society. Perhaps we are not prepared or educated or sensitized enough to work without control and supervision. Mischievous persons may take advantage of the situation to cheat the general public. When the Government are exploring the possibility of regulating the Non-governmental organizations having vast experience, it is doubtful as to whether the mutually aided Co-operatives in various field can give desired result. The circumstances and the situation give rise to the Co-operative Movement in the Country are still prevalent. The market is still not accessible to small and marginal farmers. Supply of agricultural credit is not adequate. About 50% of our rural and tribal household still have no facility for institutional credit. The Co-operatives are today at the cross road at their existence, particularly in view of the fast emerging economic liberalization and globalization. The Co-operatives still continued to function in a traditional way with poor governance and management, poor resource mobilization, outside interference, dependence on Government and lack of professionalization. The Co-operatives are neither member-driven nor functioned professionally in a transparent manner with accountability to members. In spite of all these, no doubt, the Co-operatives have contributed a lot to the agriculture development of the Country. We cannot afford to see that these institutions wither away. It nee ds reform. It is not-worthy to say that in the National Common Minimum Programme of present UPA Government it has been mentioned to bring constitutional amendment to ensure the democratic autonomous and professional functioning of Co-operatives. The constitutional amendment may limit itself with timely conduct of elections timely conduct of audit, uniform tenure of managing committee conduct of general body meetings right of a member for access to informations and the accountability of the management. In this context our strategies may be as follows. Co-operatives need be member-driven; stakeholders should have a command over its affairs and activities. There is need for more transparency, more of interaction and confidence -building measures. Aggressive marketing strategy be adopted for sensitizing members and general public about the service and quality rendered by the Co-operatives. Commitment to best service and pursuit for excellence should be the hallmark of Co-operative. Every society should adopt their customers or members charter and should meticulously adhere to this charter. Co-operative should compete with other players in prevailing market forces without any protectionist or discriminator approach. In respect of short-term, medium-term, long-term sector and Urban Bank sectors, restrictions have been stipulated by Reserve Bank of India, NABARD in respect of finance. These restrictions need be liberalized which would help Co-operative to optimize its lendable resources and provide finance to members. Strengthening information and database of Co-operatives if of utmost importance. MIS need be adopted by the process of computerization and inter-connectivity to provide best services to members and customers with anytime and anywhere service. Professionalization of management is one of the basic prerequisites of Co-operatives. Both the personnel as well as directors of committee of management should be exposed to regular training, interaction and orientation. Adoption of scientific planning for deployment of human resources on the principle of right man for the right post at right time would help Co-operatives to accelerate the pace of reforms. Human resources need be proactive. Motivation, recognition for good work and leadership be inculcated for augmenting productivity. Basic tenets corporate governance be adopted like fair play, transparency and accountability. The PACS, as the foundation of the Co-operative system are meeting the development needs of the farmers by providing credit, inputs and storage and processing and marketing facilities. The Co-operative federated at the district and State level constitutes the Co-operative system. But it is found that the Apex institutions have grown stronger whereas the primaries and in some cases, Central Co-operatives have gone weaker. The situation has to be changed and the primaries have to grow stronger. The business of the Primary Societies have to be diversified. Cooperative Credit in Agriculture Development (Role of agriculture co-operative societies in agriculture) Now-a-days credit serves as an elevator. It has been recognized as the life blood of all economic activities. Like all other producers,agriculturists also need credit. According to an old proverb, credit supports the farmers as the hangmans rope supports the hanged. This Statement is fully true in the context of Indian farmers. Thus, for stimulating the tempo of agricultural production, an adequate and timely credit is most essential. The Co-operative Societies Act, 1904 gave concretized shape for establishing primary co-operative societies to meet both the short and medium-term loan needs of farmers. The provision of these loans did not make any improvement and did not have any impact on the farmmers socio-economic status and consequently, they were head and ears indebt. In order to solve this problem and make the farmers free from the cruel clutches of money lenders, the idea of co-operative long-term credit institutions called Co-operative Agricultural and Rural Development Banks /Co-operative Gram Vikas Banks (earlier called Cooperative Land Development/Mortgage Banks) was mooted. Role of agriculture co-operative societies: An agricultural co-operative society which is authorised by its rules to borrow money may at any time, subject to the provisions of this section and with such consent of the Minister as is mentioned in this Act and whether the issue of debentures is or is not authorised, or is or is not forbidden by the rules of such society, issue debentures to any authorised lender for the purpose of securing to such lender the repayment, with or without interest, of any capital sum of money lent by such lender to such society before the issue of such debentures (whether before or after the passing of this Act) or intended to be so lent at or after such issue, or partly so lent and partly so intended to be lent. An issue of debentures shall not be made by an agricultural co-operative society under this section unless either the committee of such society has power under the rules of such society to borrow money and the amount to be borrowed on the security of such debentures is within such borrowing power or a resolution approving of the making of such issue has been passed by a special meeting of the shareholders of such society convened expressly for the purpose of considering and, if thought fit, passing such resolution. The following provisions shall apply to debentures issued by an agricultural co-operative society under this section, that is to say:— such debentures may be expressed to charge the money secured thereby in either or both of the following ways, that is to say, by way of fixed charge on any specified property (including uncalled capital) of such society or by way of floating charge on the assets, property, and undertaking (either with or without specified exceptions) for the time being and from time to time belonging to such society; such debentures may contain all or any such provisions for enforcing or making effective the security thereby afforded as are usually contained in debentures issued by a limited company; such debentures shall operate and have effect in accordance with the terms thereof so far as such terms are authorised by this Act. An issue of debentures made by an agricultural co-operative society under this section may consist either of a single debenture to secure the whole amount of the sum of money for the securing of which such issue is made or of a series of debentures for separate sums ranking pari passu and amounting in the aggregate to the full amount of the said sum of money, and in any event shall rank in priority to any issue of debentures subsequently made by such society under this section. An issue of debentures made by an agricultural co-operative society under this section may be accompanied and collaterally secured by a trust deed of the general character usual in respect of trust deeds entered into for similar purposes in relation to an issue of debentures or debenture stock by a limited company. Whenever an issue of debentures is made under this section by an agricultural co-operative society, the authorised lender to whom such debentures are issued shall, within twenty one days after the issue thereof, apply in the prescribed form and manner to the Minister for the registration of such issue in the register, and if such authorised lender fails so to apply for such registration every debenture comprised in such issue shall, upon the expiration of the s

Effective Approaches to Prevent Teen Pregnancy Essay -- essays researc

Effective approaches to prevent teen pregnancy After reading numerous articles and abstracts in regards to the ever so intriguing topic of teen pregnancy, I’ve come to a conclusion which is a little different than I had expected. Before reading any of the literature on teen pregnancy, I was under the assumption that the sex education classes provided in school were an extremely effective weapon against unwanted teenage pregnancies. Of the literature references that I’ve used and those of which I have haven’t chosen to extrapolate on, many have reported results based on random surveys while others have conducted quantifiable research to reach their findings. In an article by Dryfoos J in the Planned Parenthood Review, Dryfoos mentions some methods that have been proven to slightly impact the teenage pregnancy issue. The article, â€Å"Preventing teen pregnancy: what works,† the author tells us of what’s necessary for any program designed to prevent teen pregnancy to be effective. He states â€Å"To avoid unintended pregnancy among young persons, two conditions must be met: they must have the capacity and a reason to want to control their fertility.† This means that a teenager must have a reason to prevent herself from becoming pregnant as well as the means to do so. There are programs currently in place which help to provide a means to an end to this problem. They include family life education and birth control services. Programs which assist in providing a reason to not get pregnant include quality of life programs and expanding opportunities programs. Based on studies performed, two trends are emerging. These studi es indicate that sex education can enhance knowledge but little evidence shows that these school based sex education programs have sexual activity or contraception use. Also, evaluations on the method of problem-solving have shown a reduced amount of risk-taking behavior as well as increase in the use of contraceptives for sexually active teenagers. Another article that I chose was the Journal of Adolescent Health by K. A. Hacker, Y. Amare, N. Strunk, and L. Horst entitled â€Å"Listening to youth: teen perspectives on pregnancy prevention.† This article gives statistical evidence of a teen’s perspective on pregnancy prevention. This article gives us a very convincing detailed analysis of their survey including percentages of students who felt a particular wa... ..., as I have discussed before – what is being taught to students is not the reality of the topic, but a non-controversial â€Å"G† rated version of the dangers of early sexual activity. I believe that neither of the two solutions will work without the other. Parents must speak to their children regardless of how awkward it may feel in addition to better and more informative education on the sexuality and its repercussions. Bibliography Dryfoos J. â€Å"Preventing teen pregnancy: what works.† Planned Parenthood Review, October,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2002, pp. 6-7. Hacker, Karen A; Amare, Yared; Strunk, Nancy; Horst, Leslie. â€Å"Listening to Youth: â€Å"Teen   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Perspectives on Pregnancy Prevention.† Journal of Adolescent Health, April, 2000,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  pp.279-288. Somers, Cheryl L.; Fahlman, Mariane M. â€Å"Effectiveness of the 'Baby Think It Over' Teen   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Pregnancy Prevention Program.† Journal of School Health, May, 2001, Vol. 71 Issue 5,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  p188, 9p. Wood, B. Daniel. â€Å"Teens, sex, and power of parents.† The Christian Science Publishing Society,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  September, 2002.

Compare the two poems, Presents from my aunts in Pakistan and Essay exa

Compare the two poems, Presents from my aunts in Pakistan and Search for my tongue. Both poems shows people thinking about their roots and how each poem conveys their thoughts and feelings. In this essay I will be evaluating two poems from different cultures and traditions. Both poems 'Search for my tongue' and 'presents from my aunts in Pakistan' are about true identity and searching for your roots. 'Presents from my aunts in Pakistan' is mainly about a girl who is of mixed race and how she describes the gifts of clothes and jewellery sent to her in England by her Pakistani relatives. There is no rhyme scheme and the poem is written in free verse. Free verse simply means that the phrases are arranged loosely across the page. It is divided into stanzas of varying length. The girl contrasts the beautiful clothes and jewellery of India with English clothing. She describes how it feels like wearing the 'salwar kameez' and how she longed for denim and corduroy. She's drawn to the loveliness of the gifts but feels awkward wearing them because she is more comfortable in English clothes. The poem is full of associated, sometimes contrasting images. An example of a contrasting image is ' of no fixed nationality staring through fretwork in the Shalimar gardens.' Fretwork is basically decorative carving and the Shalimar gardens is an ornamental ark in Lahore, her hometown. The girl describes how life in England differs from life in Pakistan. She talks about the salwar kameez as 'alien' but wanting cardigans from Marks and Spencer's. The way the women live is somewhat different from that of England. For example her aunts were in shaded rooms, screened from male visitors whereas the women in England go o... ... left with. The speaker imagines herself there in Lahore - somewhere she has been only in her thoughts. However she is of no fixed nationality. This sounds a slightly threatening phrase. After thoroughly reading the poems, I have arrived at two main conclusions. Firstly it is important to know where one comes from, which is perhaps what the girl in the poem was lacking as a child and it is also important to know what has gone into one's making, even quite far back, I think it gives you a sense perhaps of richness. Secondly it is sometimes very difficult knowing two languages but having to neglect the one that belongs to you. One's mother tongue is an important link to your family and your childhood. Last but not least I agree deeply with the statement and I quote ' that's the deepest layer of my identity' which was said by Sujati Bhatt, the writer.

Business Ethics Test Notes

Case Test 3 Chapter 12 Ethics Case 12-45 1. If the purchase had been handled properly by the controller this transaction may have been considered within ethical standards. However, evidence of weaknesses in internal control over inventory and possible management override of computerized records, that in all appearances increase the risk of adulterated inventory counts and computerized records in general, warrant response from the auditing team during their assessment of financial statements.Although the number of shirts sold to the auditing team do not constitute a material misstatement in regards to the financial statements, the risk related to fraud should be assessed and mitigated during the planning and carrying out of the audit and further audit procedures. These transactions do not affect the existence and valuation assertions relevant to auditing. The right and obligations assertions, on the other hand, may be impacted as physical counts of inventory and their accuracy and com pleteness come into question. The auditor should be wary of procedures related to physical counts of inventory.Extra care to mitigate intentional or misintentional inclusion of inventory in the physical count should be countered by the auditing team. Additionally, the audit should further address the implications of the ability of management to override perpetual inventory records and computerized information in general in all other areas of the audit to assure that relevant risks are mitigated and minimized. Outside of the effects on the auditing process, this case does not affect the opinion of the auditor on the audited financial statements.In spite of this, the client should be made aware of the discovery. Although the likelihood of material misstatement of the financial records due to this occurrence is unlikely, the auditor may find that purchase of the shirts negatively impacts thee appearance of independence of the auditor and the level of confidence entrusted to the auditor and auditing firm as a result of the situation. Additionally, the liability of the auditors may become an issue as litigation related to these audited statements arises. 2.The adequacy of the audit will be negatively affected as assertions need to be modified and relevant risks associated addressed to perform a reliable audit. Increases in control and detection risk factors may prompt the auditor to assign more experienced staff to areas identified as high-risk areas for fraud. Saint Leo’s core value of integrity relates to the auditing professing in a variety of ways as it is an inherent requirement in auditing. Auditors must consistently apply ethical paradigms during their professional and personal lives.This practice increases the confidence of the public in the profession as well as in the audited financial statements of companies. Requiring students to uphold this core value prepares them to address ethical concerns in the workplace and holds them accountable for the i ntegrity of their coursework during their studies as well. By consistently practicing this core value, students are better prepared for successful careers that mirror the core values of the institution and contribute to the economic health of society as a whole. Similar essay: Disadvantages of Ethics in the Workplace

Just Lather That’s All

Just Lather, That’s All: principles vs. actions In Hernando Tellez’s Just Lather, That’s All; despite given the opportunity to greatly help the revolutionists, the Barber cannot murder Captain Torres because the act goes against his moral beliefs. Even killing an evil man is beyond his personal principles. On the other hand, Captain Torres is more than capable of killing the Barber, but his arrogance prevents him. His intentional provocation of the Barber tests the revolutionist; he knows the potential danger, but refuses to accept the possibility as he believes he cannot be killed by such a simple man.Morality and arrogance prevent both characters from killing each other; their principles mean more to them than their duties. The Barber cannot kill Captain Torres, because he finds murder ethically ugly. After the horrible hanging of the revolutionists by Captain Torres, he becomes horrified and contemplates killing the man: â€Å"And how easy it would be to kill him. And he deserves it. Does he? No! † (par. 12) The Barber is certain that murdering Captain Torres is â€Å"easy† for him, but his morality puts him in hesitation, which is clearly shown as he contradicts himself: â€Å"[Torres] deserves [to die].Does he? No! † The Barber thinks that â€Å"no one deserves to have someone else make the sacrifice of becoming a murderer† (par. 12), even if that â€Å"one† is a ruthless executor like Captain Torres. The word â€Å"sacrifice† emphasizes the Barber’s hate for murderers, as it shows that someone must give up his moral principles and turn into a monster in order to become a murderer. The Barber has to sacrifice the joy of perfecting his job by committing the most shameful mistake a Barber can make – opening a customer’s pores and emitting blood. Blood† is the word that the Barber doesn’t like: â€Å"out of his neck a gush of blood would spout onto the sheet†¦ the blood would keep inching along the floor†¦ineradicable†¦like a scarlet stream. † (par. 12) The Barber’s disgust for blood, which symbolizes guilt, is manifested as he describes how once â€Å"blood† spouts, it will spread and never stop: â€Å"ineradicable†. In other words, the feel of guilt will be in him forever. The Barber thinks that killing Captain Torres while he is shaving for him and his eyes are closed is cowardly of him: â€Å"Captain Torres’ murderer.He slit his throat while he was shaving him a coward. † (par. 12) The Barber clearly hates blood and murder; he does not even kill the most brutal man. He realizes he will be called a â€Å"murderer†; an awful word that will always haunt him. He will be perceived as a â€Å"coward† for killing a brutal but defenseless man. However he claims that he is â€Å"a revolutionary and not a murderer† (par. 12) which is ironic since revolutionists are known to do anything even if it threaten their lives, in order to stand up for their beliefs.But the Barber is not willing to become a villain like Captain Torres: â€Å"I don’t want to be a murderer, no sir†¦I don’t want blood on my hands. Just Lather, that’s all. † (par. 13) The repetition of the word â€Å"blood† emphasizes how â€Å"blood† (guilt) is the first image that comes to the Barber’s mind when he thinks about murder. His morality makes him take the decision and that is to let the captain go. The Barber doesn’t want guilt or blood. He only wants to do his job: â€Å"just lather that’s all. † Simultaneously, Captain Torres can easily kill the Barber but his conceit tempts him to test the Barber.He can’t stand the idea of a normal man being able to kill him. He taunts the Barber by talking about the people he has captured and how they will all be executed soon. He wants to provoke him to find out if the revolutionist can kill him or not. â€Å"Not one of them comes out them comes out of this alive, not one,† (par. 5) says Captain Torres, knowing that the Barber is sympathetic toward the rebels. Captain Torres repeats â€Å"not one† to indirectly threaten the Barber; he tries to scare the Barber to find out if the man is brave enough to commit the murder or not after this threat.At the end, Captain Torres telling the Barber that he knows his secret shows how arrogant he is; instead of killing or capturing the man after exposing him, he walks away Captain Torres and the Barber fail in killing each other because of the Barber’s ethicalness and Captain Torres’ vanity. The Barber killing someone is out of question even if it is someone ruthless like Captain Torres. Captain Torres’ pride controls his actions to make him not help but test the Barber instead of killing him.

A Research On Native Americans: Origin, Culture, Way Of Life And Contribution To The United States

The origin and presence of Native Americans in the Western Hemisphere has been one of the most debatable issues in both American and world historical studies. European invaders entering the new land were quite challenged to find about 100 million inhabitants in the Americas; a land they had always presumed was vast and vacant.These European settlers as well as scientists believed that the American natives belonged to the biblical Lost Tribes of the nation of Israel, while others fancifully argued that these natives could have been the remnant of lost civilizations such as Mu or Atlantis.Early European settlers insisted that Native Americans must have had their origin in ancient Israel, Rome, the Irish, Welsh or Viking lands. Scientists have however changed their perspective over recent times and joined Native American voices to support the notion that these people are indigenous to the Americas.Tied into the issue of native origin are legal standings regarding Native sovereignty, pos session of sacred artifacts and Native remains, Native American spokesman-ship or representation, as well as the rules that should be used to analyze the evidence deduced from history and science about their indigenous status in this land (Carliste & Golson 2006, p.1).Native Americans in the United StatesHistorically, the earliest Native tribes to inhabit the Americas are the Athapascans and Inuits who are believed to have entered the land through the Bering Strait that connects Alaska and Siberia. Others are said to have traveled by boat or canoe around the North American Pacific coast and Arctic Circle to predominate North America and parts of South America.But the Native American people have together with others. Always questioned the Bering Strait theory and gone ahead to insist that they have inhabited the Americas as far back as their origin can be traced.Researchers into the origins of Native Americans have suggested that these people could have entered the Americas through m ultiple migrations not only by the land bridge or boat at the Bering Strait; but also through sea from Polynesia and parts of Europe.Genetic evidence has also come up with suggestions that Native Americans had already arrived in the Americas about 15,000 to 30,000 years long before the Bering Strait had been exposed by lowering sea levels. Recent discoveries have found genetic evidence of Polynesian origin among five Native tribes like the Mapuche, Cayapa of Ecuador, Huilleche, Nuu-Chal-Nulth in Canada, and the Atacameno of Chile.Native oral traditions tell about a journey to the Americas by boat and the present-day continent popularly referred to as the United States of America is an ancestral home to over 500 Indian nations. The state of California alone was home to over 60 tribes of between 30,000 – 40,000 Native people before the early European invasion (Stubben & Sokolow 2005, p.1-3; Carliste & Golson 2006, p.1-6).Native American tribes spoke a variety of languages but m ost of the northeastern tribes lived in semi-permanent and permanent dwellings, socially organized under clan membership.The clans were matrilineal and young men were raised in the households of their mothers by their maternal uncles. Daily Native American life revolved around hunting, gathering, farming and fishing, the main crops being maize, beans and squash.Native Americans moved in groups of about 50 – 100 people because such a group could manage reasonable hunting exploits especially when hunting large buffalo herds. Family was very important to the Native Americans and all members of a family ranging from grandparents, parents and the children shared a very special bond. Family and tribal elders were highly respected and their decisions in various matters were crucial to the existence of a clan or entire tribe.Men did the hunting and took care of other tribal matters such as maintenance of tribal boundaries while the women provide labor for tilling the fields as well a s doing several other chores. In some tribes like the Iroquois, women also held powerful positions whereby they controlled the election and removal of clan chiefs.These gender based cultural traits were to create a lot of cross-cultural conflict when the European arrived in the Americas (Stubben & Sokolow 2005, p.57; Carliste & Golson 2006, p.113).Life for the Native Americans however changed drastically with the arrival of European settlers to America especially during the early 1800s, when the Americas experienced an influx of European settlers.The need to supply the American nation with foodstuffs, clothing and lumber led to the displacement of Native people and immediately, plans got under way to resettle them to reservations. European invasion is said to have led to the extinct of some Native tribes like the Beothuk who are said to have been wiped out completely.Most other tribes lost over 90% of their people to European genocide because the white settlers had better weapons of warfare that were also more extreme and violent than the native peoples could resist.In their conquests, European invaders murdered noncombatants as well as used biological warfare such as deliberate spread of disease and starvation. 75 million Indians are estimated to have died with some estimates going as high as 112 million (Pritzker 2000, p.162; Carliste & Golson 2006, p.9, 26).European settlement was detrimental to Native American existence because it disrupted every aspect of their lives. The relocation f Native tribes from their native lands disrupted their way of life.Between 1854 and 1855 for example, Washington governor Isaac I. Stevens signed four treaties in quick succession with the Waka Walla Cayuse, Yakima, Makah, Nez Perce, Lushootsedd and Coer d’ Alene Native tribes around the Oregon and Washington territories.Through these treaties, Native lands were ceded back to the government which included the choicest lands of Tacoma, Seattle and Olympia. In return, th ese tribes were allotted tracts of lands although the government held the right over waterways and public transportation throughout these territories.Although native tribes retained such rights as fishing, hunting and grazing rights, these allotments marked the beginning of a restricted lifestyle for the Native tribes.These treaties not only eroded native culture but their lifestyle as well, and forced their assimilation into reservations (Hoxie, Mancall & Merrell 2001, p. 67; Pritzer 2000, p. 5, 214; Carliste & Golson 2006, p.29, 75, 111).